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Classic feudalism....



...but by the Battle of Bosworth changes were underway. The Black Death had wiped out nearly half the population a generation or two earlier, paradoxically improving the lot of the survivors. In the aftermath of the plague labor was in demand, putting the common man in a better position to negotiate.

In terms of combat this meant that many of the levies also drew pay, and a noble had to look after the welfare of his forces or face widespread desertion. Around 2,000 of Henry's 5,000-man army were in fact not levies at all but mercenaries, professional warriors from France, "the roughest men in Normandy". Although outnumbered by Richard's 10,000 man army the presence of this hard core would prove decisive. When Richard made the attack that almost succeeded, Henry, who took no personal part in the fighting, was able to find refuge amid these mercenaries.

Significant that the levy applied to men "between the ages of 16 and 60". Judging by skeletal battlefield remains the common man of that era was surprisingly robust, not too far off what one would expect in modern times.

Swords, daggers and bows never went out of style, this being the era of the longbow, but the primary infantry weapon was at that time a pole arm; a halberd or bill about five or six feet long. These could be used to stab like spears or swung like an axe, and their spikes or hooks could be used to catch the armor of an opponent and cause them to fall.

Probably an English guy armed with a bill, the jacket or brigandeen contained sewn-in metal plates.



A guy in a video vignette portraying a farmer called up as an archer in Richard's levies, here wearing a helmet passed down by his father and, being a good archer, stating he was getting paid a shilling a day which "wasn't bad".





The museum portrays him as being cut down later during the rout of Richard's forces. His jacket is likely padded with wool or horsehair which would offer some protection.

A man-at-arms, sort of a middle rank in the feudal levies, who was expected to muster his own company from among the lower classes. This guy is carrying a halberd as well as a sword and buckler (small shield}.



Surprising to me was the presence of mobile artillery at that early date, firing lead cannonballs.



Birdwatcher